Pack-MULE transposable elements mediate gene evolution in plants. Geneticists from the University of Georgia and Washington University think so after examining Mutator–Like transposable Elements (MULEs) that are found in many eukaryotic genomes. In well-studied plants they are known to carry fragments of cellular genes. The researchers named these ones "Pack-MULEs".

Their report in Nature states, "Functional analysis of amino acid sequences and proteomic data indicate that some captured gene fragments might be functional. Comparison of the cellular genes and Pack-MULE counterparts indicates that fragments of genomic DNA have been captured, rearranged and amplified over millions of years. Given the abundance of Pack-MULEs in rice and the widespread occurrence of MULEs in all characterized plant genomes, gene fragment acquisition by Pack-MULEs might represent an important new mechanism for the evolution of genes in higher plants." Later they report, "...Sequence acquisition must have occurred over a long time frame, perhaps millions of years, and might still be occurring." A sample indicates that 5% of the captured sequences are transcribed. The article concludes, "...About one-fifth of the identified Pack-MULEs contain fragments acquired from multiple genomic loci, thus demonstrating their potential to create novel genes through the duplication, rearrangement and fusion of diverse genomic sequences."

In addition to genes from engulfed algae, diatoms also contain a mix of plant and animal DNA, for which horizontal transfer, by various means, provides the most economical account, we think. Evidence that any diatom gene was composed by standard duplcation and divergence is not mentioned. If we ask how species obtain new genetic programs, this research supports our hypothesis that are acquired from elsewhere, and not the theory that they are composed de novo.

Larger than Mercury or Pluto, Titan has an appreciable atmosphere — that's unique among moons in the solar system. Furthermore, the air's composition (mostly nitrogen) and surface pressure (1.6 Earth atmospheres) are comparable to Earth's. But at 95° K, the air on the surface is much colder.

On this website we suggest that organisms acquire new genetic programs by gene transfer. This genetic study offers additional evidence that gene transfer, even among eukaryotes, is a robust process. The mainstream darwinian theory holds that new genetic programs are gradually composed under the pressure of natural selection. We have seen little evidence for that process. (We welcome any submissions or pointers thereto.)

Retroelements such as retrotransposons were once thought to be examples of "selfish genes," but this gene is clearly beneficial to the viral species carrying it. Interestingly, genes with similar diversity-generating casettes are already seen in various bacteria.

Jennifer Blank of Lawrence Livermore National Lab described experiments in which extreme impacts turned unjoined amino acids into larger peptides. (This is like explaining literature by explaining typesetting.) Later, Knoll admitted, "But the leap is staggeringly complex.... It's hard to get your head around." Right. Finally, the show emphasized the importance of cyanobacteria in creating the oxygenated atmosphere, which, we agree, is an important phase in the history of life on Earth. The final two episodes, "Where are the Aliens?" and "Back to the Beginning," will air tomorrow. Expect entertainment more than enlightenment.

Meyer

We have carefully read Meyer's essay. His main critique of the standard theory is that the new taxa that appeared suddenly in the Cambrian explosion required new genetic or epigenetic information for which darwinism has no adequate account. Meyer's alternative explanation is Intelligent Design (ID), although he does not say when or how this (process?) installed the needed information. Darwinists have quickly responded that this critique has been heard before, and that ID is simply a new term for creationism.

We agree that Meyer's critique is not new, but we think the problem is still unsolved. In fact, we believe that the unsolved problem for darwinism extends well beyond the Cambrian explosion. Not only then, but throughout the history of life on Earth, new genetic programs have produced evolutionary advances. The standard theory holds that these new programs were composed within Earth's closed biosphere by unguided darwinian processes, but this composition process lacks confirmation. Neither closed-system experiments, nor historical reconstructions from genomic sequences convincingly demonstrate the composition of new programs. (We recognize the adequacy of biological evidence for adaptation, speciation, variation, optimization, etc., which processes are also easily demonstrated in computer models.)

In a genetically open system new genetic programs could come from elsewhere. They could be installed by viruses and other familiar processes of lateral gene transfer, as cosmic ancestry requires and as many examples already illustrate. After installation, beneficial new programs could be favored (and optimized) by standard darwnian natural selection.

In earlier essays we have challenged darwinism to demonstrate the composition of new genetic programs in closed-system experiments in biology or in computer models. If a convincing demonstration ever succeeds, we will retire. Until then, we think scientific alternatives like cosmic ancestry deserve consideration. [Thanks, Jerry Chancellor.]

Using a new algorithm called "conditioned reconstruction," Maria Rivera and James Lake affirm the observation that "the informational genes of eukaryotes are primarily derived from Archaea and the operational genes are primarily derived from Bacteria." In passing they comment, "A substantial and continuous influx of mitochondrial DNA to the eukaryotic nucleus has been documented." Moreover, "The extensive horizontal transfer observed among prokaryotes can obscure the identities of those prokaryotes that may have contributed genes to eukaryotes."

Tracking genes that retain their identities for billions of years, they mention no examples of genes that have acquired new functions by duplication and divergence. Instead, "The results derived in this paper argue against autogenous theories... in which eukaryotes are proposed to have evolved clonally from a single, possibly very ancient, prokaryote." Their conclusion strengthens our hunch that eukaryotes (not just prokaryotes) must acquire new genes, by whatever method, from beyond their own genomes.

Microfossils in Orgueil; photo by Richard B. Hoover, NASA/NSSTC, 21-23 July 2004; sample courtesy of Paul Sipiera, the Dupont Meteorite Collection of the Planetary Studies Foundation.

Microfossils in meteorites have been reported before now (see related webpages linked below), but critics say that they may have been left by earthly contaminants. Yet the newly seen microfossils can hardly be contaminants because they are not isolated single cells, but whole ecologies whose earthly examples grow only under conditions that the meteorite fragment never experienced after landing here.

Conference attendees agreed that the new evidence, soon to be published in the Conference Proceedings, is momentous. Meanwhile, Hoover's group is gathering additional images and data for submission to a peer-reviewed scientific journal. For Hoover's discussion, a larger photo, and corroborating photos from Russia, see our new webpage linked (first) below.

Proportion of old galaxies does not diminish with increasing redshift

Another survey by nine Italian and two German astronomers looked at massive spheroidal galaxies. These are are characterized by old stellar populations and are thought to appear "rather late in the history of the Universe as the culmination of a hierarchical merging process, in which larger galaxies are assembled through mergers of smaller precursor galaxies." Using the Very Large Telescope of the European Southern Observatory, the Italians obtained deep optical spectroscopy for 546 objects at redshifts of z > 1.5. Among them, four massive spheroidal galaxies were positively identified and three more candidates were observed. The standard big bang theory predicts that these galaxies would be entirely absent at the early stage indicated by the observed redshifts.

Most darwinists know little about the big bang, but they rely on it to mandate that life must originate. In cosmic ancestry life never originates and must come from the infinite past. Therefore we think it is important to understand the evidence for the big bang. In our opinion, the evidence does not give the big bang as much clout as darwinists (and creationists!) assume. [Thanks, Newshub.]

Karl Glazebrook et al., "A high abundance of massive galaxies 3–6 billion years after the Big Bang" [abstract], p 181-184 v 430, Nature, 8 July 2004.
A. Cimatti et al., "Old galaxies in the young Universe" [abstract], p 184-187 v 430, Nature, 8 July 2004.
Gregory D. Wirth, "Old before their time" [text], p 149-150 v 430, Nature, 8 July 2004.
Glimpse at Early Universe Reveals Surprisingly Mature Galaxies, Johns Hopkins University News Releases, 1 Jul 2004.
The End and the Big Bang is a related CA webpage.
Douglas Early replies, 28 Jul 20004.